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Ⅰ. Introduction1

1. Outline and Scope of the Study1

2. Defining Extraterritorial Application7

3. The Law of Treaties Provides No General Answer9

4. Basic Normative Framework11

A. Jurisdiction clauses11

B. Treaties with dedicated provisions on territorial application13

C. Treaties with no provisions on territorial application17

D. Concluding remarks17

Ⅱ. From Compromise to Principle19

1. A Threshold Criterion: Jurisdiction of a State, Not the Jurisdiction of a Court19

2. Jurisdiction's Many Meanings21

A. A spurious assumption21

B. Jurisdiction in general international law23

C. Jurisdiction: an absurdity26

D. Jurisdiction: a homonym30

E. Origins of jurisdiction clauses34

F. Jurisdiction as power39

3. State Jurisdiction Is Not State Responsibility41

A. Loizidou: a test of attribution?41

B. The first possible reading of Loizidou42

C. The second possible reading of Loizidou46

D. Attribution as a prerequisite for jurisdiction51

4. Conclusion52

Ⅲ. Policy Behind the Rule54

1. Introduction54

2. Universality and Human Dignity55

3. Sovereignty and Territory58

4. Sovereignty and Comity to the Territorial State61

A. The sovereignty of Iraq in Al-Skeini61

B. Canadian case law on sovereignty and comity62

C. Comity as a distraction from effectiveness65

5. Sovereignty, Citizenship, and the Social Contract67

A. US case law on citizenship and extraterritoriality67

B. The Guantanamo cases72

C. Evaluating citizenship as a ground for extraterritoriality of individual rights76

6. Relativism and Regionalism83

A. Relativism and regionalism before the European Court83

B. Relativism and regionalism in Al-Skeini86

C. Relativism and regionalism evaluated: another face of effectiveness91

7. Preventing Arbitrary Distinctions and Results and the Abuse of Law96

8. Political Questions, Deference, and Institutional Incompetence98

9. Effectiveness and Norm Conflict103

10. Between Universality and Effectiveness106

A. What does and what should matter106

B. Effectiveness: flexibility110

C. Effectiveness: impact113

D. Effectiveness: regime integrity114

E. Effectivness: clarity and predictability115

F. Conclusion116

Ⅳ. Models of Extraterritorial Application118

1. Basic Models and Scenarios118

A. Introduction118

B. Extraterritorial deprivation of life120

1. Killing in a territory within the state's control120

2. Killing in a territory outside the state's control120

3. Killing in a territory outside the state's control, but within the territory of a state party to the human rights treaty in question (espace juriclique)121

4. Killing by third parties121

C. Extraterritorial deprivation of liberty122

1. Detention in a territory within the state's control122

2. Detention in a place within the state's control122

3. Detention on a ship or aircraft123

4. Killing, torture, or ill-treatment during extraterritorial detention123

D. Complicity scenarios124

1. Territorial complicity124

2. Extraterritorial complicity124

3. Distinguishing between primary and secondary rule complicity124

E. Extraterritorial law enforcement126

F. Transboundary environmental harm126

2. The Spatial Model: Jurisdiction as Control of an Area127

A. Introduction127

B. What is an'area'?129

C. What amounts to 'control'?135

1. Lawful or unlawful135

2. Effective overall control over territory136

3. Relationship with the threshold of belligerent occupation141

4. Does control need to be exclusive?147

D. Control over places and objects151

1. A general theory?151

2. Embassies and consulates154

3. Ships and aircraft160

E. Outlook170

3. The Personal Model: Jurisdiction as Authority and Control over Individuals173

A. Introduction173

B. Case law175

1. UN treaty bodies175

2. Inter-American institutions180

3. Early Strasbourg case law181

4. Post-Bankovic Strasbourg case law183

C. What amounts to authority and control? Can the personal model be limited?187

1. Physical custody187

2. Control over an individual in a specific place, or by specific agents193

3. Nationality and membership in the armed forces193

4. Exercise of a legal power199

D. The personal model collapses207

4. A Third Model: Territorial Jurisdiction and the Distinction Between Positive and Negative Obligations209

A. Universality unbound209

B. Textual interpretation and implicit negative obligations212

C. Prophylactic and procedural positive obligations215

D. Reconciling universality and effectiveness219

5. The Special Problem of the ICCPR222

6. Treaties Without Jurisdiction Clauses227

Ⅴ. Norm Conflicts, International Humanitarian Law, and Human Rights Law229

1. Introduction229

2. A Relationship between Norms, not between Regimes232

3. Norm Conflict Avoidance and Norm Conflict Resolution236

A. Defining norm conflict236

B. Methods of norm conflict resolution237

C. Methods of norm conflict avoidance239

D. Unresolvable norm conflicts242

4. Is Lex Specialis a Rule of Conflict Avoidance or of Conflict Resolution?249

5. Areas of Potentially Unresolvable Norm Conflict252

A. Preventive detention and judicial review of detention252

B. Necessity in targeting254

C. (Transformative) occupation257

6. Concluding Remarks259

General Conclusion262

Bibliography266

Index275