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Introduction&Flovia Lottonzi1

Ⅰ. Institutional fragmentation5

Ⅱ. Substantive fragmentation10

Ⅲ. Procedural fragmentation15

Chapter 1 'Fragmentation', Diversification and '3D' Legal Pluralism:International Criminal Law as the Jack-in-the-Box?&Carsten Stohn ＆ Larissa van den Herik21

1. Introduction21

2. International criminal law as a 'new' response26

3. 'Institutional fragmentation': Imminent or exaggerated judicial turf wars?30

3.1 Positioning the ICJ in its relation to international criminal courts32

3.2 International criminal courts and tribunals:One 'big happy family?35

3.3 'Vertical fragmentation': The multiple identities of national courts39

3.4 The relationship between international criminal courts and alternative transitional justice mechanisms43

3.5 The relationship between international criminal courts and human rights courts47

3.6 Towards a 'community of courts'?55

4. 'Substantive fragmentation': The eye of the beholder56

4.1 International criminal law as a 'regime' or 'system'58

4.2 Sources of law as source of 'fragmentation'61

4.2.1 Use of customary international law62

4.2.2 General principles67

4.3 Interpretation and the ICC's telos and zelos68

4.3.1 Textual v. purpose-based approach towards interpretation69

4.3.2 Judicial creativity71

4.4 Normative conflict and hierarchy75

4.4.1 Interpretative disputes75

4.4.2 Norm collision76

5. Procedural fragmentation78

5.1 Idiosyncracies of international criminal procedure79

5.1.1 Features80

5.1.2 Rules of interpretation81

5.2 Systemic 'fragmentation'83

6. Conclusion87

Part Ⅰ Institutional Aspects of Fragmentation91

Chapter 2 The Judicial Dialogue between the ICJ and International Criminal Courts on the Question of Immunity&Rosanne van Alebeek93

1. Introduction93

2. Stocktaking: clashes, disregard or constructive dialogue?97

2.1 The pre-Arrest Warrant practice of international criminal courts97

2.2 The judgment of the ICJ in the Arrest Warrant case100

2.2.1 No exception to personal immunity for international crimes: Judge Van den Wyngaert's criticism on the formalistic approach of the majority101

2.2.2 The scope of the irrelevance of the official capacity principle102

2.2.3 Personal immunity before international courts104

2.3 The post-Arrest Warrant practice of international criminal courts106

2.3.1 Personal immunity before international courts106

2.3.2 The scope of the irrelevance of the official capacity principle109

2.4 Interim conclusion: Talking cross purposes110

3. The ICJ and the international criminal courts: The context in which the 'dialogue' takes place111

Chapter 3 Binocular Vision: State Responsibility and Individual Criminal Responsibility for Genocide&Philippa Webb117

1. Introduction117

2. Dual responsibility under the Genocide Convention121

2.1 Two regimes for responsibility in one Convention121

2.2 Multiple systems for enforcement125

3. Interplay between state responsibility for genocide and individual criminal responsibility in international courts127

3.1 Prerequisites for holding states and individuals responsible127

3.2 State and individual complicity in genocide129

3.3 Remedies and the obligation to punish134

4. State responsibility for acts of non-state actors and individuals137

5. Procedure to establish responsibility141

5.1 Different standards of proof141

5.2 Using findings of other international courts144

6. Conclusion146

Chapter 4 Finding Custom: The ICJ and the International Criminal Courts and Tribunals Compared&Yeghishe Kirakosyan149

1. Introduction149

2. Why international criminal tribunals utilize customary international law149

3. Custom in public international law150

4. Peculiarities of international criminal law154

5. Approaches to custom by the ad hoc Tribunals156

6. Conclusion160

Chapter 5 Human Rights Cases in Sub-regional African Courts: Towards Justice for Victims or Just More Fragmentation?&Helen Duffy163

1. Introduction163

2. Hadijatou Mani's case165

2.1 Background to the case165

2.2 Pursuing justice at home: Victim come perpetrator?167

3. The case before the ECOWAS Court169

3.1 The judgment170

3.1.1 Admissibility170

3.1.2 Slavery171

3.1.3 Other human rights violations175

4. The impact (actual and potential) of the case179

5. The significance of the role of the ECOWAS Court and other African sub-regional bodies181

6. Conclusion: Fragmentation and the Ecowas Court?184

Chapter 6 Praising the Region: What Might a Complementary Criminal Justice System Learn from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights?&Cecilia Cristina Naddeo187

1. Introduction187

2. The principle of complementarity and the fragmentation debate189

2.1 Applicable law189

2.2 Situations and cases193

2.3 The participation of the victims in the triggering procedure194

3. The principle of complementarity and the case law of the Inter-American Court195

3.1 Exhaustion of domestic remedies195

3.2 State's duty to investigate, prosecute and punish198

3.3 Monitoring the state's compliance with remedies200

4. Case studies on procedural fragmentation201

4.1 Peru201

4.2 Colombia206

4.3 Guatemala208

5. The principle of complementarity and prospects for cross- fertilization210

6. Conclusion214

Chapter 7 The Regionalization of Criminal Law - the Example of European Criminal Law&Ricardo Pereira217

1. Introduction217

2. The rationales for criminal law regionalism220

3. The degrees of integration in criminal matters in the EU224

4. The principle of mutual recognition in the EU - approximation or cooperation?231

5. The limits of the European Union competence in criminal matters - pre-Lisbon developments236

6. The Treaty of Lisbon and the future of EU criminal law241

7. Conclusion244

Chapter 8 Alternative Justice Mechanisms, Compliance and Fragmentation of International Law&Susan Kemp247

1. Obligations under international law249

2. Transitional justice enters the debate253

3. Alternative justice and alternatives to justice258

3.1 Terminology and trends258

3.2 Identifying alternatives and substitutes263

4. Legal solutions beyond the ICC268

4.1 Discretion to prosecute 'those most responsible': Policy or norm?269

4.2 Compliance, exceptions, excuses and defences275

4.3 AJMs as compliance: Substituting criminal proceedings279

5. Conclusions and future directions282

Chapter 9 Limits of Information-sharing between the International Criminal Court and Truth Commissions&Eszter Kirs287

1. Different goals of the ICC and truth commissions288

2. Theoretical definition of the relationship292

3. Legal framework of information-sharing296

3.1 Statements taken by a truth commission before the ICC296

3.2 The confidentiality problem300

3.3 Flow of information towards truth commissions301

4. Concluding remarks303

Chapter 10 Puzzling over Amnesties: Defragmenting the Debate for International Criminal Tribunals&Dov Jacobs305

1. Introduction: From the dangers of fragmentation305

2. Horizontal fragmentation of international law and amnesties307

2.1 Human rights law and amnesties307

2.2 International humanitarian law and amnesties310

2.2.1 The duty to prosecute war crimes310

2.2.2 The amnesty clause in non-international armed conflicts311

2.3 Other duties to prosecute312

2.3.1 The existence of a duty to prosecute313

2.3.2 The scope of the duty to prosecute314

3. Horizontal fragmentation within international criminal law and amnesties315

3.1 The ad hoc tribunals and amnesties315

3.2 The Special Court for Sierra Leone317

3.2.1 The Amnesty Clause in the Lome Peace Agreement and the Statute of the Special Court317

3.2.2 Subsequent case law by the Special Court318

3.3 The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia321

3.3.1 General considerations321

3.3.2 Amnesties in the Statute: An unresolved issue322

3.3.3 A first indication in the case law323

3.4 The Special Crimes Panels in East Timor325

4. Other levels of fragmentation and amnesties327

4.1 Vertical fragmentation: Taking into account national jurisdictions?327

4.2 Pluridisciplinary fragmentation: Amnesties beyond the law328

5. Gathering the pieces of the puzzle: Amnesties in international criminal tribunals331

5.1 Defragmenting the debate: Identifying the relevant pieces of the puzzle331

5.1.1 International CRIMINAL tribunals: Not courts of legality332

5.1.2 INTERNATIONAL criminal tribunals: Not bound by national legislation335

5.1.3 The International Criminal COURT: Not bound by politics or sociology336

5.2 What's left? Some guidelines for international criminal tribunals in applying their Statutes336

5.2.1 An international duty to prosecute?337

5.2.1.1 No obligation to prosecute under general international law or human rights337

5.2.1.2 A statutory duty to prosecute339

5.2.2 The Case Study of the ICC339

5.2.2.1 Complementarity and amnesties340

5.2.2.2 'Interests of justice' and amnesties342

6. Conclusion:... to the dangers of unity343

Part Ⅱ Fragmentation of Substantive Law347

Chapter 11 Chinese Humanitarian Law and International Humanitarian Law&Liu Daqun349

1. The origins of law in ancient China349

2. Humanitarian law in ancient China351

3. Contemporary contributions of China to international humanitarian law354

4. China's attitude towards the International Criminal Court357

Chapter 12 Approximation or Harmonisation as a Result of Implementation of the Rome Statute&David Donat Cattin361

1. Introduction: The Rome Statute and fragmentation or diversification in international criminal law361

2. The Rome Statute and its treaty-based, self-contained regime363

3. The erroneous doctrine on the non-binding nature of the complementary principle v. domestic implementation of the Rome Statute's substantive law as indispensable means to fight impunity and binding legal obligation367

4. The duty to prosecute or extradite or surrender370

5. The Rome Statute is not uniform law, but entails a minimum standard372

6. Differing practice of States in implementing the Rome Statute in the area of cooperation377

7. Concluding remarks386

Chapter 13 Fragmentation of the Rome Statute through an Incoherent Jurisdictional Regime for the Crime of Aggression: A Silent Operation&Deborah Ruiz Verduzco389

1. Introduction390

2. Article 12 and the sources of the jurisdiction of the ICC391

2.1 Characteristics392

2.2 Exceptions to Article 12394

2.3 The coherence of Article 12395

2.4 US opposition397

3. The creation of a distinct jurisdictional regime for the crime of aggression: A silent operation399

3.1 Debate within the SWGCA:The need for consent of the aggressor state and the amendment procedures402

3.2 Discussions in Kampala404

3.3 Indirect amendment of Article 12409

4. Two possible legal explanations411

4.1 The intimate relationship between the act and the crime of aggression412

4.2 Departure from Article 12 justified by the amendment procedure422

5. The dangerous consequences of fragmentation425

6. Conclusion427

Chapter 14 Domestic Prosecution of Genocide: Fragmentation or Natural Diversity?&Cristina Fernandez-Pocheco Estrada429

1. Introduction429

1.1 The role of national jurisdictions in the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide429

1.2 The framework: The Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide432

2. Legislative divergences in the implementation of the crime of genocide436

2.1 Models of implementation of the crime of genocide in national law436

2.2 Modifications of the definition of the crime437

2.2.1 Groups protected437

2.2.2 Underlying offences439

2.2.3 Other elements442

3. Divergences in the case law regarding the crime of genocide443

3.1 The Spanish interpretation of 'national group'444

3.2 The German interpretation of the destruction intended449

4. Fragmentation or evolution?453

Chapter 15 The Rome Statute and Domestic Proceedings for Ordinary Crimes: The (In)Admissibility of Cases before the International Criminal Court&Beatrice Pisani461

1. Introductory remarks461

2. The Rome Statute and ordinary crimes463

2.1 Unwillingness466

2.2 Inability468

3. The ICC and the fight against impunity474

4. Concluding remarks480

Chapter 16 Fragmentation of the Notion of Co-Perpetration in International Criminal Law?&Chantal Meloni481

1. Introduction481

2. A fragmented picture484

3. The creation of the 'JCE' doctrine by the ICTY485

4. First elaborations on co-perpetration in ICC jurisprudence489

5. Fragmentation of the notion of co-perpetration or different modes of liability?497

6. Final remarks500

Chapter 17 The Mens Rea Enigma in the Jurisprudence of the International Criminal Court&Mohamed Elewa Badar503

1. Introduction503

2. Background on the Lubanga, Katanga and Bemba Decisions504

3. The meaning of intent and knowledge under Article 30 of the ICC Statute508

3.1 Direct intent or dolus direct us of the first degree508

3.1.1 Indirect intent, oblique intent or dolus directus of the second degree509

4. Is there room for dolus eventualis under Article 30 of the ICC Statute?510

4.1 The rulings of the Lubanga and Bemba Pre-Trial Chambers on the notion of dolus eventualis within the framework of Article 30511

4.2 Do the travaux preparatoires support the inclusion of dolus eventualis in Article 30?514

4.2.1 The Ad Hoc Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court514

4.2.2 The Siracusa Draft515

4.2.3 The Freiburg Draft of 1996516

4.2.4 The 1996 Report of the Preparatory Committee516

4.2.5 The Zutphen Draft Statute, January 1998519

4.2.6 PrepCom Draft Statute, April 1998519

4.2.7 The Committee of the Whole519

4.2.8 The Preparatory Committee520

5. The contours of dolus eventualis in comparative criminal law521

5.1 Egypt521

5.2 France523

5.3 Italy524

5.4 South Africa525

5.5 Germany526

5.5.1 Consent and approval theory527

5.5.2 The 'indifference theory' (Gleichgultigkeitstheorie)528

5.5.3 The 'possibility theory'528

5.5.4 The 'probability theory'529

5.6 Islamic jurisprudence530

6. Distinguishing dolus eventualis from dolus directus of the second degree531

7. A proposed definition for dolus eventualis532

8. A plea to the International Criminal Court533

Chapter 18 Reception of Common Law in Substantive International Criminal Law&James L. Bischoff535

1. Indirect intent for planning, instigating and ordering540

2. Conspiracy to commit genocide545

3. Duress551

4. Conclusion553

Chapter 19 The Principle of Complicity under International Law - Its Application to States and Individuals in Cases involving Genocide, Crimes against Humanity and War Crimes&Erik Kok557

1. General introduction557

2. The concept of complicity557

2.1 The interaction between primary and secondary rules in prohibiting complicit conduct559

2.2 Primary rules560

2.3 Secondary rules564

2.4 The goals behind the imposition of responsibility565

2.5 The role of fault in establishing responsibility566

3. The conduct that gives rise to responsibility568

3.1 Common plan568

3.2 Control575

3.3 Instigation577

3.4 Aiding578

3.5 Insufficient diligence in prevention582

4. Fragmentation586

5. Conclusion589

Part Ⅲ Fragmentation and Criminal Procedure591

Chapter 20 Unification or Fragmentation? Structural Tendencies in International Criminal Procedure&Mark Klamberg593

1. Preliminary remarks593

2. Theory of interests593

3. Identifying and making objectives operational600

3.1 Inventory of objectives pressing for recognition in international criminal procedure600

3.1.1 Crime control603

3.1.2 Fair trial605

3.1.3 Expeditious proceedings609

3.1.4 Truth611

3.1.5 Victims 'participation and protection612

3.1.6 State sovereignty616

3.2 Recognition by the applicable law617

3.3 Weighing and balancing competing objectives618

4. Interpretation622

5. Applying the approach626

5.1 Differences between international criminal tribunals and courts627

5.2 Differences between specific procedural activities628

6. Reflections on the fragmentation of a legal regime631

Chapter 21 Prosecutorial Discretion in International Criminal Justice: Between Fragmentation and Unification&Hitomi Takemura633

1. Introduction633

1.1 Fragmentation and the notion of international criminal prosecution633

1.2 The meaning of prosecutorial discretion635

1.3 Rationale of prosecutorial discretion636

2. Prosecutorial discretion: the emerging division of labour between domestic courts and international tribunals636

2.1 The ad hoc Tribunals and case selection636

2.2 The International Criminal Court's complementarity and universal jurisdiction638

3. Prosecutorial discretion and the International Criminal Court639

4. Case selection criteria642

5. Case study of an ICC case: An actual application of criteria to cases644

6. Situation selection and the International Criminal Court645

7. Case study of an ICC situation: An actual application of criteria to a situation649

8. Deferral of a situation and investigation in favour of interests of justice650

9. Inherent difficulties of hybrid tribunal's prosecutorial discretion651

10. Procedural fairness: enhancing legitimacy for prosecutorial discretion652

11. Concluding remarks656

Chapter 22 Fragmentation in International Criminal Law and the Rights of Victims&Margaret Burnham657

1. Introduction657

2. Victims' reparative rights in international law658

3. Victims' participation rights in international law662

3.1 Participation rights: An overview of the procedural regimes of the ECCC, the STL and the ICC664

4. Victims' rights in ICC judicial proceedings under the Rome Statute667

4.1 Establishing victim standing669

4.2 Participation as a victim in ICC investigations and trials671

4.3 Victim participation in ICC reparations hearings674

4.4 Participation rights and due process675

5. The Trust Fund for victims676

6. Reconciling victims' rights claims678

7. Conclusion679

Chapter 23 The Influences of French Law on Appeal Proceedings before the International Criminal Court and the Tribunals&Xavier Tracol681

1. Introduction681

2. Victims, parties civiles and third parties affected by a decision - all persons entitled to appeal against interlocutory decisions682

2.1 An innovation of the Rome Statute682

2.1.1 The legal representatives of victims684

2.1.2 The particular situation of states685

2.2 A right of appeal recognised in French criminal procedure686

2.2.1 The participation of victims in first instance criminal proceedings in the French and German legal systems686

2.2.2 Parties Civiles have specific rights of appeal in French criminal procedure687

3. Pre-appeal judges: A distant French legal influence687

3.1 The situation at the ICTR690

3.1.1 A specific provision in the Rules relating to the pre-appeal judge690

3.1.2 Powers that are broad but vested by an authority lacking jurisdiction691

3.2 The situation at the ICTY693

3.2.1 Applicable provisions693

3.2.2 Speeding up appeal proceedings?696

4. Conclusion701

Index703