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Introduction1

1．The Scope of Study2

2．Significance of the Research3

3．Literature Review5

4．Thesis Contribution17

5．Methodology and Sources17

6．Organization21

Chapter 1 Theories on International Trade23

1．Mercantilism23

2．Free Trade26

2.1 Classical Trade Theory27

2.2 Neoclassical Trade Theory33

3．Protectionism35

3.1 The Infant-Industry Argument37

3.2 The Fair Trade Argument42

4．Political Considerations of International Trade46

4.1 Building a Liberal Trading System47

4.2 Backsliding from Liberal Trade Principles47

4.3 Trade as a Foreign Policy Tool48

Chapter 2 The Formulation and Execution of American Trade Policy54

1．The Executive Branch55

1.1 The President56

1.2 The Executive Office57

1.3 The Departments59

1.4 The Agencies62

1.5 Interagency Coordinating Groups64

2．The Legislative Branch65

2.1 The Structure65

2.2 Legislative Process68

2.3 Committees69

2.4 Authority and Power71

3．The Private Sector73

3.1 Types of Organizations73

3.2 Activities76

Chapter 3 Trade Policy Prior to 193479

1．Trade Policy Before the Civil War(1789-1860)80

2．Trade Policy Between 1861 and 189087

3．Trade Policy Between 1891 and 193092

4．The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 193098

5．Conclusion101

Chapter 4 The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934105

1．International Setting106

1.1 Trade Barriers in the 1930s108

1.2 The Effects of the Trade Barriers111

1.3 Breakdown of International Efforts112

2．Domestic Context115

3．The Administration's Proposal118

4．Congressional Handling of the RTAA121

4.1 Congressional Debate121

4.2 Realignment of Congressional Trade Coalitions128

5．Implementing the RTAA137

6．Conclusion140

Chapter 5 The Trade Expansion Act of 1962146

1．International Context148

2．Domestic Context:the Influence of Protectionism152

3．The Administration's Proposal and Persuasive Campaign157

4．Congressional Handling of the Administration's Proposal161

4.1 Passage of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962165

4.2 Innovative Features of the New Legislation168

5．Application of Escape Clause169

5.1 The Origin of the American Escape Clause170

5.2 The Development of Escape Clause from 1951 to 1973171

5.3 Section 201 of the Trade Act of 1974175

5.4 The Application of Section 201(1975-2004）179

6．Conclusion185

Chapter 6 The Trade Act of 1974194

1．International Context195

1.1 The Rise of Japan195

1.2 The"Oil Shock"of 1973196

2．Domestic Context198

2.1 Stagflation198

2.2 The Rising Tide of New Protectionism200

3．The Administration's Proposal203

4．Congressional Handling of the Administration's Proposal205

4.1 House Action on the Bill205

4.2 Senate Action on the Bill208

5．Application of Section 301213

5.1 History of Section 301213

5.2 The Objectives of Section 301214

5.3 The Substantive Elements of Section 301215

5.4 International Law and Section 301216

5.5 The Application of Section 301(1975-1986）217

6．Conclusion224

Chapter 7 The Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988230

1．Global Context232

1.1 The Pipeline Sanctions233

1.2 The Japanese Challenge236

2．Domestic Context237

2.1 Mounting Political Pressure238

2.2 Interbranch Discontent240

2.3 The Administration's Policy Shift244

3．The Legislation of 1988 Omnibus Trade and Competitivenss Act245

4．Application of Super 301 and Special 301249

4.1 Super 301250

4.1.1 Super 301 Process251

4.1.2 Cases of Application252

4.2 Special 301254

4.2.1 Special 301 Process255

4.2.2 Cases of Application256

4.3 Assessing Section 301 Cases260

5．Conclusion262

Chapter 8 The Trade Act of 2002267

1．Global Context268

1.1 Anti-WTO Backlash268

1.2 Surge of Regional Trade Agreements270

2．Domestic Context273

3．Legislation of TPA276

3.1 The House Vote279

3.2 The Senate Vote280

3.3 The Conference Compromise and Final Passage281

4．Application of TPA282

5．Conclusion285

Conclusion290

Bibliography298

Appendix323