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Introduction1

Chapter One Customary International Law, Theoretical Conceptions and Evidence of its Formation9

Ⅰ. Introduction9

Ⅱ. Customary international law9

A. Custom as a source of international law9

1. Custom10

2. Sources of international law11

3. Formal and material sources of international law and further distinctions11

B. Assessment13

Ⅲ. Introduction to the theory of customary international law13

Ⅳ. Scope of the theoretical assessment14

Ⅴ. Theory of the formation of customary international law15

A. Positivism16

1. Voluntarist conceptions18

2. Other opinio juris-based approaches to customary international law24

3. Ago's theory of spontaneous law25

4. Practice-based approaches26

5. Strict normativism: Hans Kelsen's pure theory of international law and neo-Kelsenian approaches27

6. Assessment29

7. Later approaches: Haggenmacher, Mendelson and others29

8. Commentary on the late positivist approaches32

9. Other practice-based conceptions33

B. Two-element approaches33

C. Two-element conceptions of the formation of customary international criminal law and customary international human rights law36

1. Different sorts of customary international law37

2. The deductive approach to custom-formation39

3. The 'core rights' approach42

4. Two-element approaches to customary international human rights and humanitarian law: assessment44

D. Naturalist conceptions46

1. Moral theoretical approaches to the formation of customary international law47

2. Assessment48

E. Realist Conceptions49

1. New Haven and similar approaches50

2. The customary international law game52

3. Assessment of the New Haven and the game theory concepts of custom54

F. New Approaches to International Law55

1. The Sliding-Scale Approach55

2. Ascending and descending conceptions of international criminal law57

3. Evaluation of the sliding-scale approach and subsequent up and down arguments58

4. Institutionalised law-making: Charney's 'universal international law' and subsequent ideas59

5. Assessment of institutionalised law-making approaches60

6. Critical Legal Studies perceptions of the formation of customary norms61

7. Assessment of the CLS conception of customary international law64

G. Theory of customary international law: tentative conclusions65

H. Evidence67

Chapter Two Customary International Law and its Relationship with other Sources and Methods of Law-Identification71

Ⅰ. Introduction71

Ⅱ. The relationship of customary international law with other sources of international law: general principles of international law and customary international law71

Ⅲ. General principles of law in accordance with Article 38 (c) and other general principles73

A. Preliminary considerations73

B. General principles of national or international origin74

1. General principles of national origin75

2. General principles of a genuine international origin75

3. A third category?76

4. General principles of international law originating from any source of international law11

5. Preliminary Conclusion79

C. General principles of law as a source of international human rights and international criminal law80

1. Simma's and Alston's approach to international human rights law81

2. Kolb, Henkin and Yasuaki81

3. Simma's and Paulus' approach to international criminal law82

4. Discussion of a general principles approach to international human rights and international criminal law83

D. Concluding remarks on the relationship of custom and the general principles of law85

Ⅳ. Interpretative methods and their relationship with the finding of customary international law86

A. Interpretation88

1. The notion of interpretation88

2. Underlying concepts90

B. Particular methods: Articles 31-33 VCT92

1. Article 31 (1) and (2) VCT92

2. Article 31 (3) (c) VCT93

3. Article 31 (3) (c) and the Oil Platforms Case94

4. Further interpretative rules of the VCT95

5. Subsidiary means of interpretation96

C. Interpretation of treaties by the ICJ, the ICTY and the ICTR97

1. Grammatical interpretation, supporting elements and systemic interpretation98

2. Object and purpose, effectiveness and other circumstances99

3. Customary international law101

4. Assessment101

D. Analogy102

1. Introduction102

2. Notion and theoretical underpinnings102

3. Analogy in the jurisprudence of ICJ and ICTY104

4. Final considerations on the relationship between analogy and custom106

E. Final assessment of the relationship between interpretation and analogy and the discovery of new customary international law108

Chapter Three Visions of Development111

Ⅰ. Introduction111

Ⅱ. Theoretical conceptions of the development of customary international (criminal) law111

A. The humanisation of humanitarian law112

B. A communitarian vision113

C. Increasing fragmentation116

Ⅲ. Assessment117

Chapter Four Practical Developments (Part One): Customary International Law in the Case Law of the PCIJ and the ICJ121

Ⅰ. Introduction121

Ⅱ. Strict Voluntarism122

A. The PICJ's Lotus Case122

B. Discussion of the Lotus findings in the light of the formation of customary international law125

Ⅲ. Two-element approaches to custom: The customary law on the continental shelf and further cases126

A. The Asylum Case, the Fisheries Case and further judgements127

B. The North Sea Continental Shelf Cases129

C. Discussion of the impact of the North Sea Continental Shelf findings on the methodology of customary international law131

D. Continental Shelf Case I (Tunisia v Libya)132

E. Continental Shelf Case II (Libya v Malta)134

F. The Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons137

G. The importance of the conclusions of the Nuclear Weapons advisory opinion for the formation of customary international law139

Ⅳ. Deductive reasoning140

A. The Corfu Channel Case140

B. The Advisory Opinion on the Reservations on the United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Prohibition of the Crime of Genocide142

C. Relevance of the findings in the Advisory Opinion on the Genocide Convention and further developments: the Barcelona Traction Case and the Genocide Case (Bosnia Herzegovina v. Serbia Montenegro)145

Ⅴ. A first drawback for the deductive approach: the South-West Africa Cases147

Ⅵ. Deduction affirmed? The Gulf of Maine Case150

Ⅶ. Deductive and empirical approaches side by side: the Nicaragua Case151

A. The Court's findings151

B. Further assessment of the Nicaragua Judgment155

Ⅷ. Resumption of the deductive method: The Yerodia Case157

A. The ICJ's findings157

B. Assessment of the Yerodia judgment161

C. Compararison: the discussions at the Institut de Droit International on the immunities from execution and jurisdiction of Heads of State and Government in international law162

Ⅸ. The importance of 'elementary considerations of humanity': the Advisory Opinion on the Construction of a Wall in the Palestinian Territories and further cases164

A. Advisory Opinion on the Construction of a Wall in the Palestinian Territories164

B. The 2002 Congo Case and the Srebrenica judgement167

Ⅹ. Conclusions on the analysis of the case law of the ICJ168

A. The evidence assessed168

B. The methods applied170

Chapter Five Practical Developments (Part Two): The Case Law of the International Ad Hoc Criminal Tribunals on Customary International Criminal Law175

Ⅰ. Introduction175

Ⅱ. Preliminary considerations: the definition of international criminal law176

Ⅲ. The different approaches of the ICTY and the ICTR to customary international law177

A. Differences in the scope of ratione materiae jurisdiction177

B. The applicability of the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and its Additional Protocols to the conflict in Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia181

C. The succession situation in the SFRY and the applicable treaty law182

D. The existence of an international or non-international armed conflict on the territory of Yugoslavia184

Ⅳ. The case law of the ICTY and the ICTR on customary international law186

Ⅴ. The findings of the ICTY on the evolution of new customary international criminal law187

A. The 'sources based approach': international legal instruments and international jurisprudence as evidence of new customary international law187

1. Nuremberg Jurisprudence and the military trials following World War II188

2. Risks ensuing from utilizing the Nuremberg jurisprudence and similar case law as evidence of new customary law195

3. Other international and domestic case law on matters of international humanitarian law200

4. International humanitarian law instruments202

5. International human rights instruments205

6. The ILC Draft Code of Crimes214

7. The influence of the Rome Statute216

8. The ICRC Study on Customary International Humanitarian Law and ICRC opinions218

B. Deductive approach / core-rights approach220

1. Prerequisites for the application of Articles 2 and 3 ICTY Statute/Article 4 ICTR Statute: The Tadic case220

2. Conclusions on the Tadic Interlocutory Appeal224

3. Affirmation of the findings of the Tadic Interlocutory Appeal judgment: the Martic Case, the Celebici Case and subsequent judgments226

4. The 'customs of war' in Article 3 ICTY Statute / Article 4 ICTR Statute: the Kupreskic Trial Chamber judgment and subsequent decisions230

5. Assessment of the findings of the Kupreskic Trial Chamber234

6. The prohibition on destroying civilian property236

7. Murder237

8. Outrages upon personal dignity237

9. Terrorisation of a civilian population: the Galic appeal judgment238

10. Assessment241

11. Rape242

12. The Hadzihasanovic Decision on Interlocutory Appeal Challenging Jurisdiction in Relation to Command Responsibility and subsequent case law243

13. Drawbacks to the deductive approach: the Ojdanic Interlocutory Appeal on Joint Criminal Enterprise Liability and further judgments247

C. Mixed methodologies249

1. Blurring of different sources of international law (general principles of international law and customary international law)250

2. The need for a differentiation between methodologies: the case law of the ICTY on the customary criminality of co-perpetratorship253

3. Blurring of customary international law and interpretation254

4. No differentiation between customary international law and analogy258

Ⅵ. The case law of the ICTR259

A. International legal instruments approach259

1. Crimes against humanity and the fair trial principle260

2. Widespread and systematic attack260

B. Blurring of interpretation and custom262

1. Discriminatory intent requirement262

2. Murder263

3. Rape264

4. Complicity in genocide265

5. Command responsibility266

C. Common sense approach267

1. Extermination268

2. Other inhumane acts269

D. Deductive approach270

1. The customary international law character of the prohibition of genocide, acts of complicity and public incitement to genocide270

2. Individual criminal responsibility271

3. Joint criminal enterprise liability272

Ⅶ. Conclusions on the jurisprudence of the ICTY and the ICTR on customary international law273

A. Determining agencies273

1. The Nuremberg trials, the case law of the ICJ, and the case law of the ICTY and ICTR274

2. The case law of the military tribunals established after World War II and national case law concerning international crimes275

3. The ILC Draft Code of Crimes275

4. International treaties and UNGA resolutions275

5. Military manuals276

6. ICRC opinions276

7. Assessment277

B. A hierarchy of determining agencies for customary international criminal law?278

C. The methodologies applied when identifying new customary international law279

1. Different approaches to custom280

2. Relationship between the four approaches281

D. Merging of different methods and sources of international (criminal) law283

Ⅷ. The approaches of the ICTY and the ICTR compared285

Chapter Six Evolution of New Customary International Criminal Law: Further Implications287

Ⅰ. Introduction287

Ⅱ. Article 21 (1) (b) of the ICC Statute: further development of customary international criminal law?288

A. Preliminary issues289

B. Article 21 (1) (b) ICC Statute: controversies291

C. Travaux preparatories293

D. Conclusion295

Ⅲ. Clash of custom with aspects of legality? - The nullum crimen sine lege principle and its implications for the formation of new customary international criminal law296

A. The principle nullum crimen sine lege in national and international law: overview297

B. Scope of the principle in international law299

1. International human rights instruments: Article 11 UDHR300

2. Article 7 (1) ECHR and Article 15 (1) ICCPR301

3. Article 7 (2) ECHR and Article 15 (2) ICCPR303

4. Other provisions305

5. The ILC Draft Code against Peace and Security of Mankind and the interpretation of nullum crimen sine lege in international legal scholarship305

C. The nullum crimen sine lege principle in the case law of the international ad hoc criminal tribunals308

1. Nullum crimen as a principle of justice: the Tadic Interlocutory Appeal308

2. Individual requirements of the principle of legality: the Celebici Trial Chamber judgement309

3. Assessment311

4. The Hadzihasanovic Interlocutory Appeal decision311

5. No creation of new law: the Aleksovski Appeals Chamber judgment312

6. Limitations on the methodology of customary international criminal law: The Vasiljevic Trial Chamber judgment and the Ojdanic Appeals Chamber decision313

7. Custom, interpretation and the nullum crimen principle: the Stakic Trial Chamber judgment316

8. ICTR Cases316

D. Conclusions on the interpretation of the nullum crimen principle by the ICTY and ICTR317

E. Further development of nullum crimen sine lege Article 22 of the ICC Statute318

1. The prohibition of retroactivity319

2. The rule of strict construction and prohibition of interpretation in malam partem319

3. The prohibition of analogy320

4. Article 22 (3) ICC Statute321

F. Conclusion on the nullum crimen principle in Article 22 ICC Statute322

Ⅳ. Overall conclusion on the impact of the nullum crimen sine lege principle on the finding of new customary international law322

Chapter Seven Developments in Customary International (Criminal) Law: Implications from the Case Law of the ICJ, the ICTY and the ICTR325

Ⅰ. Introduction325

Ⅱ. The conclusions from the case law of the ICJ, the ICTY and the ICTR325

A. Lessons from the ICJ's case law326

1. Concerning the evidence of new customary international law326

2. The different methods of determining new customary international law328

B. Lessons from the case law of the ICTY and the ICTR329

1. Considering the relevant evidence of a new customary rule329

2. Considering the methodologies applied330

C. Implications for the theory of international law333

D. Conclusions335

Ⅲ. An evaluation scheme for the determination of new customary international (criminal) law337

A. Introduction337

B. Evaluation scheme for discovering new customary international (criminal) law338

1. Preliminary considerations - the importance of interpretation338

2. The classical two element approach to customary international law338

3. Application of the international legal instruments approach339

4. The core rights approach340

5. Analogy341

6. General principles of law341

C. Conclusion342

Bibliography343

Index363