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Part Ⅰ: Introduction1

1 The Definition of Rape in an International Perspective3

1.1 Background3

1.2 Purpose and Research Questions9

1.3 Delimitations9

1.4 Terminology11

1.5 Sources of International Law16

1.6 Method28

1.7 Structure of the Book31

Part Ⅱ: Elements of the Crime of Rape:A Contextual Approach35

2 The Prohibition of Rape in Domestic Criminal Law:An Historical Overview37

2.1 Introduction37

2.2 Early Codes:Rape as a Violation of Property Rights38

2.3 The Middle Ages40

2.4 Corroboration of Complaints41

2.5 The Women's Movement and Law Reforms47

3 The Harm of Sexual Violence53

3.1 Introduction53

3.2 How to Define Harm55

3.3 Can Sexuality be Harmed?57

3.4 Human Dignity and Sexual Autonomy64

3.5 Cultural and Collective Harm68

4 Elements of the Crime of Rape75

4.1 The Principle of Legality75

4.1.1 The Principle in International Law76

4.1.2 The Extent of Interpretation81

4.2 Substantive Elements of the Definition of Rape88

4.2.1 Introduction88

4.2.2 The Elements of the Crime90

4.2.3 Non-Consent93

4.2.3.1 Performative and Subjective Consent94

4.2.3.2 Appropriate Antecedents and Consent99

4.2.4 Coercion103

4.2.5 Force or Threat of Force106

4.2.6 Implications of Non-Consent or Force Standards107

4.2.7 Actus Reus110

4.2.8 Mens Rea and Criminal Responsibility115

5 Sexual Violence in Context123

5.1 Introduction:Armed Conflict and Gender Hierarchies as Contextual Elements123

5.2 Victims of Armed Conflicts125

5.3 The Presence of Sexual Violence in Conflicts128

5.4 Theories on the Existence of Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts136

5.5 Rape as a Strategic Tactic of War139

5.5.1 Rape as a Crime against the Community139

5.5.2 Distinguishing Rape from "Regular" Sexual Relations in Armed Conflicts145

5.5.3 The Contextual Approach to a Definition of Rape146

5.5.4 Armed Conflict as a Factor in Defining Rape154

5.6 Common Forms of Rape in Peacetime156

5.7 The Prohibition of Rape from Feminist Viewpoints159

5.7.1 The Impact of Gender in Defining Rape159

5.7.2 Feminist Critique of International Law165

5.8 Male Rape - The Excluded Victim?169

Part Ⅲ: An International Human Rights Law Perspective177

6 State Obligations to Prevent and Punish Rape179

6.1 Introduction179

6.2 The Role of the State in International Human Rights Law180

6.3 The Limits of State Obligations:Conduct Attributable to the State182

6.3.1 Primary and Secondary Rules182

6.3.2 Definition of an Internationally Wrongful Act185

6.3.3 Domestic Laws as Breaches of International Law186

6.3.4 Forms of Attribution189

6.3.5 Widening the Scope of Responsibility under International Law192

6.3.6 Consequences of the Public/Private Divide for Women's Human Rights197

6.4 The Due Diligence Standard - An Obligation to Prevent and Punish Human Rights Violations200

6.4.1 The Scope of Due Diligence and the Nature of State Obligations204

6.4.2 Obligations in International Human Rights Treaties207

6.4.3 Which Rights Engender Due Diligence Obligations?214

6.4.4 The Due Diligence Standard as a Tool in Preventing Violence against Women218

6.4.5 Prevention through Domestic Criminalisation222

6.4.6 Jurisprudence Delineating the Obligation to Enact Criminal Laws227

6.4.6.1 Case Law on Domestic Violence of the European and Inter-American Human Rights Systems227

6.4.6.2 Case Law on Sexual Violence231

6.4.6.3 Conclusions on Obligations in Case Law to Prevent Sexual Violence241

6.4.6.4 Relevant Views and Statements from UN Treaty Bodies244

6.4.7 Failure of State Obligations to Prevent Single Cases of Rape247

6.5 Margin of Appreciation - Flexibility in National Implementation?254

6.6 Conclusions on State Obligations257

7 The Recognition of Rape as a Violation of International Human Rights Law259

7.1 Is There a Human Right to Sexual Autonomy?259

7.2 The Prohibition of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment263

7.2.1 The Elements of Torture263

7.2.2 State Nexus268

7.2.3 Views and Cases on Rape as a Form of Torture271

7.2.3.1 The UN System271

7.2.3.2 Regional Human Rights Courts276

7.2.4 International Criminal Law - A New Direction in Interpreting the Torture Definition?281

7.2.4.1 State Nexus281

7.2.4.2 Severity285

7.2.4.3 Purpose287

7.3 Rape as a Violation of the Right to Privacy292

7.4 Rape as a Violation of the Non-Discrimination Principle296

7.4.1 The Principle of Equality and Non-Discrimination297

7.4.2 Purpose or Effect of Discrimination298

7.4.3 State Obligations304

7.4.4 Sexual Violence as a Form of Gender Discrimination305

7.4.5 The Definition of Rape as an Expression of Gender Discrimination311

7.4.5.1 Gender Inequality and Access to Justice311

7.4.5.2 Gender-Bias in the Law313

7.4.5.3 Gender-Bias in Language316

7.4.5.4 Statistics as Evidence318

7.5 Universal Impact of the Regional Approach319

7.6 The lus Cogens Character of the Prohibition of Rape325

7.6.1 Which Rights are Peremptory Norms?332

7.6.2 A Gender-Sensitive Interpretation of lus Cogens334

7.7 Summary of State Obligations on the Prohibition and Definition of Rape336

Part Ⅳ: An International Humanitarian Law and International Criminal Law Perspective339

8 International Humanitarian Law341

8.1 Introduction:International Humanitarian Law and Enforcement through International Criminal Law341

8.2 Characteristics of International Humanitarian Law342

8.3 Early Codification of the Prohibition of Rape in International Humanitarian Law344

8.4 The International Military Tribunals at Nuremberg and of the Far East:The Birth of International Criminal Law345

8.5 The 1949 Geneva Conventions and the 1977 Additional Protocols347

8.6 The ICRC Study on Customary International Humanitarian Law353

8.7 Intergovernmental Organisations and the Prohibition of Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts356

9 International Criminal Law361

9.1 Introduction361

9.2 Prosecution of Rape - The Ad Hoc Tribunals362

9.2.1 ICTR:The First Definition of Rape in International Law364

9.2.1.1 The Akayesu Case - A Conceptual Approach to Rape366

9.2.1.2 Beyond the Akayesu Judgment370

9.2.1.3 Conclusions375

9.2.2 ICTY:New Approaches in Defining Rape376

9.2.2.1 The Furundzija Judgment - A Focus on Force or the Threat of Force378

9.2.2.2 The Kunarac Judgment - Rape as a Violation of Sexual Autonomy383

9.2.3 Conclusions Based upon the Case Law of the ICTR and ICTY389

9.2.4 The Special Court for Sierra Leone398

9.3 The International Criminal Court403

9.3.1 The Birth of the ICC403

9.3.2 The Rome Statute and the Prohibition of Rape406

9.3.3 A Complementary Relationship408

9.3.4 The Rome Statute and the Scope of State Cooperation410

9.3.4.1 A Duty to Implement the Crimes?410

9.3.4.2 Modes of Implementation412

9.3.4.3 Complementarity - Creating Demands on the Content of Domestic Laws?414

9.3.4.4 Unwillingness416

9.3.4.5 Inability418

9.3.4.6 Ordinary Crimes419

9.3.5 The Elements of the Definition of Rape424

9.3.6 The Elements of Crimes and Its Status for Member States430

9.3.7 Situations Investigated by the Court434

9.3.8 Impact of the ICC437

9.4 Universal Jurisdiction for the Crime of Rape?440

9.4.1 Which Crimes Incur Universal Jurisdiction?444

9.4.2 Domestic Application - Various Solutions450

9.4.3 Conclusion on Universal Jurisdiction and the Prohibition of Rape457

Part Ⅴ: The Prohibition of Rape - Closing the Gap between International Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law?459

10 The Interplay between International Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law461

10.1 The Concepts of Harmonisation and Humanisation in International Law461

10.2 The Nature of International Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law463

10.3 Fragmentation and Specialisation of Public International Law466

10.3.1 General Remarks466

10.3.2 Lex Specialis versus Lex Generolis468

10.3.3 Case Law of the ICJ471

10.3.4 A Complementary Approach474

10.3.5 Fundamental Standards of Humanity - A Step towards Harmonisation478

10.4 The Concept of "Humanisation" of Humanitarian Law and Its Emergence483

10.5 The Application of International Humanitarian Law by Human Rights Courts and Treaty Bodies489

10.6 Is Harmonisation Desirable?493

10.7 Harmonising the Definitions of Rape and Torture497

10.7.1 The Definition of Torture500

10.7.2 The Definition of Rape501

Part Ⅵ: A Cultural Perspective505

11 Cultural Relativism and Obstacles to a Uniform International Definition of Rape507

11.1 Cultural Relativism and Women's Human Rights507

11.1.1 Relativity of Women's Rights512

11.1.2 Conflicts of Rights515

11.2 Cultural Relativism and International Criminal Law517

11.3 Culture and Mens Rea - A Criminal Defence520

11.4 Relativism Inherent in the International Law System524

Part Ⅶ: Conclusions - Emerging Obligations in Defining the Crime of Rape?527

12 Concluding Summary and Remarks529

12.1 Introduction529

12.2 Conclusion:The Prohibition and Definition of Rape in International Law530

12.3 The Harmonisation of Regimes and the Importance of Context534

12.4 General Remarks536

12.5 Critique of International Law Affecting the Prohibition of Rape541

12.6 The Legal Basis for Defining Rape544

12.7 Suggestions for the Future545

References547

Bibliography577

Index605