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Chapter 1 General Introduction1

1.1 Background Knowledge of Language Teaching and Learning2

1.1.1 Views of language2

1.1.2 Views of teaching3

1.1.3 Views of learning4

1.2 Context of Language Teaching and Learning6

1.2.1 Educational context6

1.2.2 Socio-cultural context7

1.2.3 Language context8

1.3 A Brief History of ELT Methodology9

1.3.1 The traditional approaches9

1.3.2 The structural approaches12

1.3.3 Communicative language teaching16

1.4 Summary20

1.5 Self-assessment20

Chapter 2 Understanding Foreign Language Learning23

2.1 Second Language Acquisition Theories24

2.1.1 Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition24

2.1.2 Acculturation Theory26

2.1.3 Accommodation Theory28

2.1.4 Discourse Theory29

2.1.5 Interlanguage Theory29

2.1.6 Chomsky's Universal Grammar31

2.2 Learner Factors33

2.2.1 Age33

2.2.2 Aptitude34

2.2.3 Learning styles35

2.2.4 Personality36

2.2.5 Attitude38

2.2.6 Motivation39

2.3 Learning Strategies40

2.3.1 Cognitive strategies40

2.3.2 Metacognitive strategies41

2.3.3 Social and affective strategies42

2.4 Good Language Learners43

2.5 Summary44

2.6 Self-assessment45

Chapter 3 Principles of Language Teaching and Learning46

3.1 Curriculum Design47

3.1.1 Curriculum and syllabus47

3.1.2 Curriculum48

3.1.3 Syllabus48

3.2 Different Syllabuses49

3.2.1 Analytic and synthetic syllabus50

3.2.2 Type A and Type B syllabus50

3.2.3 Structural syllabus52

3.2.4 Functional syllabus54

3.3 Principles of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning57

3.3.1 Shift from product to process57

3.3.2 Shift from teacher-centeredness to learner-centeredness59

3.3.3 Shift from explanation to exploration60

3.3.4 Shift from sentence to discourse61

3.4 Aims and Objectives of Foreign Language Teaching and Learning62

3.4.1 Aims63

3.4.2 Objectives63

3.4.3 Guidelines64

3.5 Summary65

3.6 Self-assessment65

Chapter 4 Teaching and Learning Language Knowledge67

4.1 Introduction68

4.1.1 Form,meaning,and function68

4.1.2 Relationships69

4.1.3 Implications for language teaching and learning72

4.2 Teaching and Learning Phonological Items73

4.2.1 Fundamental issues73

4.2.2 Basic concepts74

4.2.3 Presenting phonological items77

4.2.4 Practicing phonological items78

4.2.5 Two sample activities81

4.3 Teaching and Learning Lexical Items82

4.3.1 Principles for presenting and practicing lexical items82

4.3.2 Showing meanings of a lexical item82

4.3.3 Activating known vocabulary83

4.3.4 Expanding vocabulary87

4.4 Teaching and Learning Structural Items91

4.4.1 Showing meaning of a new structure91

4.4.2 Presenting the form of a new structure93

4.4.3 Presenting functions of a new structure94

4.4.4 Practicing structures95

4.5 Summary102

4.6 Self-assessment102

Chapter 5 Developing Language Skills104

5.1 Principles for Developing Receptive Skills105

5.1.1 Guidelines105

5.1.2 Sub-skills106

5.1.3 Materials108

5.2 Developing Listening Skill110

5.2.1 Major difficulties in listening110

5.2.2 Preparation for listening112

5.2.3 Listening strategies115

5.2.4 Listening activities117

5.3 Developing Reading Skill120

5.3.1 Reasons for reading121

5.3.2 Reading strategies122

5.3.3 Procedures for teaching a reading class123

5.3.4 Reading activities125

5.4 Principles for Developing Productive Skills128

5.4.1 Nature of communication128

5.4.2 Guidelines129

5.4.3 Differences between oral and written communication130

5.5 Developing Speaking Skill132

5.5.1 Preparation for oral communication132

5.5.2 Speaking activities136

5.6 Developing Writing Skill138

5.6.1 Basic issues138

5.6.2 Controlled writing,guided writing,and free writing140

5.6.3 Procedures for teaching free writing144

5.6.4 Creating good assignments for students146

5.7 Integrating Skills147

5.7.1 Reasons for integration147

5.7.2 Examples of integration148

5.8 Summary148

5.9 Self-assessment149

Chapter 6 Interaction in the Classroom152

6.1 Organizing the Class152

6.1.1 Characteristics of good class organization153

6.1.2 The teacher as an organizer154

6.1.3 Class management techniques158

6.2 Designing Classroom Activities162

6.2.1 Types of activities162

6.2.2 Pair work and group work162

6.2.3 A balanced activity approach164

6.3 Using Classroom English168

6.3.1 Situations for natural English use168

6.3.2 Functions of teacher talk(TT)170

6.3.3 Reducing teacher talking time(TTT)170

6.3.4 Place of first language(L1)171

6.4 Teaching Large Classes172

6.4.1 Challenges172

6.4.2 Strategies173

6.5 Summary176

6.6 Self-assessment176

Chapter 7 Promoting Learner Autonomy178

7.1 Task-Based Learning(TBL)178

7.1.1 Definition179

7.1.2 Features180

7.1.3 Designing tasks183

7.1.4 Selecting and grading tasks for TBL lessons:A sample187

7.2 Using the Internet191

7.2.1 Reasons for using the Internet in EFL191

7.2.2 Typical activities using the Internet193

7.2.3 Organizing an EFL class using the Internet198

7.3 Individualization200

7.4 Summary204

7.5 Self-assessment204

Chapter 8 Enhancing Teaching Performance206

8.1 Lesson Planning207

8.1.1 Elements of a lesson plan207

8.1.2 Guidelines for lesson planning210

8.1.3 Unit planning211

8.1.4 Writing a lesson plan212

8.1.5 Knowledge before lesson planning214

8.2 Class Observation217

8.2.1 What to observe217

8.2.2 How to observe222

8.2.3 A sample schedule of class observation225

8.2.4 Samples of class observation227

8.3 Summary230

8.4 Self-assessment230

Chapter 9 Evaluating and Improving Learning Outcomes232

9.1 Assessment and Evaluation233

9.1.1 Characteristics of good assessment233

9.1.2 General principles234

9.2 Formative Assessment235

9.2.1 Definition235

9.2.2 Functions235

9.2.3 Guidelines236

9.2.4 Techniques237

9.2.5 Formative or summative assessment241

9.3 Error Analysis241

9.3.1 Errors and mistakes241

9.3.2 Classification of errors242

9.4 Error Correction243

9.4.1 Why correct243

9.4.2 When to correct244

9.4.3 How to correct245

9.4.4 Implications for classroom practice249

9.5 Summary251

9.6 Self-assessment252

Chapter 10 Developing Professional Expertise253

10.1 A Reflective Approach to Language Teaching254

10.1.1 Definition254

10.1.2 The reflective teaching process254

10.1.3 Reflective teaching tools256

10.2 Action Research261

10.2.1 Definition261

10.2.2 AR and reflective teaching262

10.2.3 Procedures263

10.2.4 Collaborative action research267

10.2.5 An action research sample268

10.3 Research Methods270

10.3.1 Defining research270

10.3.2 A paradigm for L2 research271

10.3.3 Research methods274

10.3.4 Research design274

10.3.5 Data analysis281

10.3.6 Research tools282

10.4 Summary283

10.5 Self-assessment283

Bibliography286