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1 The fact of language change1

1.1 Boris Becker's observation1

1.2 English then and now2

1.3 Attitudes to language change7

1.4 The inevitability of change12

Further reading13

Exercises14

2 Lexical and semantic change17

2.1 Borrowing17

2.2 Phonological treatment of loans24

2.3 Morphological treatment of loans27

2.4 Formation of new words30

2.5 Change in word-meaning37

Exercises47

Further reading47

3 Phonological change Ⅰ:Change in pronunciation52

3.1 The phonetic basis of phonological change52

3.2 Assimilation and dissimilation53

3.3 Lenition and fortition55

3.4 Addition and removal of phonetic features60

3.5 Vowels and syllable structure63

3.6 Whole-segment processes66

3.7 The regularity issue:a first look69

3.8 Summary70

Further reading70

Exercises71

4 Phonological change Ⅱ:Change in phonological systems76

4.1 Conditioning and rephonologization76

4.2 Phonological space82

4.3 Chain shifts85

4.4 Phonological change as rule change90

4.5 Summary95

Further reading96

Exercises96

5 Morphological change102

5.1 Reanalysis102

5.2 Analogy and levelling105

5.3 Universal principles of analogy112

5.4 Morphologization115

5.5 Morphologization of phonological rules118

5.6 Change in morphological type125

Further reading128

Exercises129

6.1 Reanalysis of surface structure133

6 Syntactic change133

6.2 Shift of markedness139

6.3 Grammaticalization143

6.4 Typological harmony147

6.5 Case study:the rise of ergativity151

6.6 Syntactic change as restructuring of grammars156

Further reading158

Exercises159

7 Relatedness between languages165

7.1 The origin of dialects165

7.2 Dialect geography170

7.3 Genetic relationships176

7.4 Tree model and wave model181

7.5 The language families of the world187

Exercises194

Further reading194

8 The comparative method202

8.1 Systematic correspondences202

8.2 Comparative reconstruction208

8.3 Pitfalls and limitations216

8.4 The Neogrammarian Hypothesis224

8.5 Semantic reconstruction228

8.6 The use of typology and universals231

8.7 Reconstructing grammar236

8.8 The reality of proto-languages239

Further reading240

Exercises241

9 Internal reconstruction248

9.1 A first look at the internal method248

9.2 Alternations and internal reconstruction253

9.3 Case study:the laryngeal theory of PIE256

9.4 Internal reconstruction of grammar and lexicon260

Further reading262

Exercises262

10 The origin and propagation of change267

10.1 The Saussurean paradox267

10.2 Variation and social stratification268

10.3 Variation as the vehicle of change276

10.4 Lexical diffusion285

10.5 Near-mergers290

10.6 A closing note294

Further reading296

Exercises297

11.1 Language contact308

11 Contact and the birth and death of languages308

11.2 Linguistic areas315

11.3 Language birth:pidgins and creoles317

11.4 Language death323

11.5 Language planning330

Further reading337

Exercises338

12 Language and prehistory345

12.1 Etymology345

12.2 Place names350

12.3 Linguistic palaeontology354

12.4 Links with archaeology356

12.5 Statistical methods361

Exercises370

Further reading370

13 Very remote relations376

13.1 The mainstream view376

13.2 A brief history of remote proposals377

13.3 The Nostratic hypothesis381

13.4 Greenberg's multilateral comparisons384

13.5 Towards an evaluation of the macro-families390

13.6 Towards Proto-World?391

13.7 The early spread of people and languages396

13.8 Worldwide loan words?402

Further reading403

Exercises404

Appendix:The Swadesh 200-word list408

References410

Index423

文库索引431